The body of any written piece contains the "meat" of the message. In order to support a student's abilities to make the message clear and to stay on track, interventions focus on sequencing key ideas and on using transitional words and phrases.
In order to teach a student how to logically order ideas, he requires interventions on sequencing. This page includes intervention strategies that you can use to support your student's ability to sequence ideas. As you read, consider which of these interventions best aligns with your student's strengths and needs in the whole-learner domains.
Explicit Instruction
If you are intervening to support your student's ability to sequence ideas, you should start by explicitly teaching the skill. This sounds like:
Activity A: Organizational Options
If your student is struggling to organize the information in his paper and needs guidance about the type of organizational structure to use, teach Organizational Options (Culham, 2003). Students have many options about how to organize their papers. Even if a student is writing within a specific genre, there are a few ways to help students choose the best option for organizing information. When you share ideas for organizing a paper, students can then think about how to best sequence their ideas to align with the organizational option they have chosen.
Culham suggests four organizational options that teachers can support:
- Organize by Space. If students were describing, say, a room, they might begin with the big impressions — size or color — and then move gradually to smaller details: furniture, windows, lighting, rugs; then toys, pictures, figurines; then the spider on the window ledge, the half-eaten candy bar, the open book, the sock on the rug.
- Organize by Time. If students are writing stories, or explaining events, they might organize chronologically. Be sure they include specific events, but not every last one, because their papers will grow too big, sprawling, and unmanageable. This can happen if students begin too far before the real story even starts. They shouldn't keep going too long after the real story ends, either. Encourage them to keep their stories small: begin with what matters, and when the story ends, stop.
- Organize by Content. Let's say a student is writing an informational piece on black bears. She could begin by listing all the important things she knows. For the body of the paper, she might group details together into subcategories, for examples, what black bears eat, where they live, their natural enemies, and so on. From there, she would write paragraphs developing those categories. This approach keeps a writer from skipping around. Then, encourage her to end with a surprise or an important tidbit.
- Organize by Perspective. For a perspective essay, it is important to keep everything focused on the main issue. Have students begin with a clear statement of their position. Then, have them lay out the arguments both in favor of it and against it. They should give the best evidence they can to support the side they feel is right. Urge them to end with a strong conclusion that focuses on the advantages of their position.
Organizational Options in Action
Watch this clip to see how Mr. Taubman teaches students that they can organize their writing by time (chronologically) or by content (theme). Notice how he points out that there are benefits and drawbacks to each organizational option.
Culham, R. (2003). 6 + 1 Traits of writing. New York, NY: Scholastic.
Activity B: Scrambled Stories
In order to support a student's conceptual understanding of sequence, you can use teach Scrambled Stories (Hochman, 2009). This requires the teacher to break a text into parts and rearrange the events. Its effectiveness can be increased by making the lesson truly multi-sensory: with the text broken up onto different pieces of paper, the student physically moves the events of the text back into the correct sequence. Throughout this activity, the teacher and students discuss what changes to make and why. When using narrative text, students can identify the story elements as they rearrange the sentence strips. As students become more proficient in their ability to correctly sequence stories, the teacher can increase the level of complexity by adding in more events and details for students to sort.
Give the students sentence strips and ask them to rearrange the parts into a story that makes sense. "I have a story that is written out on these four strips of paper, but they've been mixed up. I need you to read the story and rearrange the strips so that they make sense from beginning to end."
Scrambled Stories in Action
Watch this clip to see how to execute Scrambled Stories. Notice how the teacher color-codes the sentence strips to help the student distinguish between individual sentences.
Hochman, J. C., Wexler, N., & Lemov, D. (2017). The writing revolution: A guide to advancing thinking through writing in all subjects and grades. John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated.
Activity C: How-To Writing
To support a student's ability to write a story with specific, sequenced steps, you can teach him to write a how-to piece. In this activity, a student decides on a process that he wants to teach someone, such as throwing a basketball or making a favorite food. Then, the student writes out the directions for this process, thinking through each required step. Finally, the student brings in all the needed materials (or the teacher supplies them), and the teacher follows the directions the student has written. After the activity, the teacher and student debrief and identify any places that the student should adjust the directions to make the process more clear. "Think of an activity or a process that you could teach someone. Then, write the steps needed to complete this activity. When you are done, I will follow your steps to see if I can complete the activity using only the directions you've written."
How-To Writing In Action
Watch this clip to see how Ms. Bowen uses a mentor text to teach students to write How-To pieces.
Hochman, J., & MacDermott-Duffy, B. (2015). Effective writing instruction: Time for a revolution. Perspectives on Language and Literacy, 41(2), 31.
Activity D: Beginning, Middle, and End (Narrative)
If your student is an emergent writer and needs support with writing a story that uses more than one sentence, teach Beginning, Middle, and End (Narrative) (Fletcher & Portalupi, 1998). This strategy uses oral storytelling or reading aloud to help a student understand that all stories have three parts: a beginning, a middle, and an end.
Beginning, Middle, and End in Action
Tell the student a story (or read him a story). Ask him to pick out the beginning, middle, and end. Then, ask the student to add these parts to his story (or give him three stapled pages labeled "Beginning," "Middle" and "End"). "Listen as I tell (or read) you a story. See if you can hear the beginning, middle, and end of the story. Then, we'll make sure your story has these three parts."
As you read the PDF below, see how the first Beginning, Middle, and End strategy uses oral storytelling whereas the second uses reading aloud to teach a student about the beginning, middle, and end of stories.
Beginning, Middle, End - Primary Fiction
Fletcher, R., & Portalupi, J. (2007). Craft lessons: Teaching writing K-8. 2. ed. Stenhouse Publ.
Activity E: Beginning, Middle, and End (Expository)
Once your student has mastered beginnings, middles, and endings when writing narrative text, but still needs support with applying these same techniques in expository text, teach Beginning, Middle, and End (Expository) (Portalupi & Fletcher, 2001). This strategy teaches a student to use the same thought process to organize her nonfiction writing.
Beginning, Middle, and End in Action
Share the topic that you are writing about with your student. Then, use a graphic organizer to indicate whether the information should go at the beginning, in the middle, or at the end of the story. "Listen as I tell you about my topic. Then, I will determine if I am describing an idea that should be in the beginning, middle, or end of the story."
As you read the PDF below, see how the first Beginning, Middle, and End strategy uses oral storytelling whereas the second uses reading aloud to teach a student about the beginnings, middles, and ends of stories.
Exploratory Outline, Non-Fiction
Portalupi, J., & Fletcher, R. (2001).Craft Lessons: Teaching Informational Writing K-8. Portland, ME: Stenhouse Publishers.
Activity F: Quick Outline
Another way to help your student sequence his ideas and organize his writing is by using outlines. If your student is struggling to develop a single paragraph, use the Quick Outline (Hochman, 2009). This strategy helps a student understand the basic structure of the paragraph, which includes a topic sentence, three supporting details, and a concluding sentence."We will be using a quick outline to write a paragraph. Our topic is climate change, so we'll start by writing a topic sentence: 'How is climate change affecting the planet?' Now, we'll write three supporting details. We know that the oceans are getting warmer, the temperatures are rising, and the ozone layer is getting thinner, so we'll write those three points. Finally, we'll write a closing statement: 'Climate change is a major problem, and we must take action to minimize the effects!'
Quick Outline in Action
Now watch Quick Outline being implemented with a struggling writer. As you watch, consider how the teacher encourages the student to consider the ideas she's written to write a closing statement.
Click here to see an example of a completed Quick Outline.
Hochman, J. C., Wexler, N., & Lemov, D. (2017). The writing revolution: A guide to advancing thinking through writing in all subjects and grades. John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated.
Activity G: Transition Outline
If your student is able to master single paragraphs and is ready to move on to writing more than one paragraph, use the Transition Outline (Hochman, 2009). This strategy helps a student write compositions with two or three paragraphs.
Transition Outline in Action
Tell the student that you will be using an outline to write two or three paragraphs. Explain that the student will first generate the topic sentence, and then list three supporting details that support each topic sentence.
Teacher: "We will be using a transition outline to write three paragraphs. Our topic is climate change, so we'll write that at the top. Now, we know we want to discuss evidence of climate change, so that will be our topic sentence: 'There is abundant evidence that climate change is real.' Now, below this topic sentence, we'll write three details supporting our topic sentence. First, we know that the carbon dioxide levels are higher, so that's our first supporting detail. The next piece of evidence is that the sea level is rising, so I'll write that on the next line. Finally, we know that there has been a global temperature rise, so I'll write that on the third line."
Click here to see an example of a completed Transition Outline.
Hochman, J. C., Wexler, N., & Lemov, D. (2017). The writing revolution: A guide to advancing thinking through writing in all subjects and grades. John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated.
Activity H: Multiple Paragraph Outline
If your student has successfully written more than two paragraphs, he is ready to learn how to use the Multiple Paragraph Outline (MPO) (Hochman, 2009). This strategy helps a student understand how to write compositions that contain three or more paragraphs.
Multiple Paragraph Outline in Action
Tell the student that you will be using an outline to write three or more paragraphs. On the left side, the student will write the main idea of each paragraph. On the right side, the student will write the supporting details.
Teacher: "We'll be using a multiple-paragraph outline to write a five-paragraph essay. First, we'll write our topic at the top of the page: Should scientists clone the wooly mammoth?' Now, we'll write the topic of each paragraph on the left, under 'main idea,' and the supporting details, in phrases, on the right. For example, our second paragraph will be about the cons of cloning. We'll write Cons: Cloning on the left. Now, on the right we have to summarize the cons. First, we know there is a chance of failure. We also don't know if implanting the cells will be successful. Third, there is a high risk of disease because the immune systems have evolved since the animal was first alive. Our final con for cloning is that the genetic clone is a hairier elephant, not a mammoth. I'll write all of this details in phrases on the right. I have to write enough details so that I am able to remember the whole point I wanted to make."
Click here to see an example of a completed MPO Outline.
Optional: Click here to watch a detailed video about how to use the MPO.
Hochman, J. C., Wexler, N., & Lemov, D. (2017). The writing revolution: A guide to advancing thinking through writing in all subjects and grades. John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated.
Activity I: Outline Your Story
If a student is able to put his story events in order but still needs support to know which events to spend more time on, teach him Outline Your Story. You may use any of the resources listed above when teaching this strategy. In Outline Your Story, the teacher shares an outline of a story she has written. First, the student helps her sequence the events. Then, the teacher and student talk about which events are the most important, and which are less important details. Then, revise the outline, collapsing details that are less important, or eliminating details that aren't important at all. From there, the teacher rewrites the draft and shares it with the student. Then, the student follows the same process with one of his stories. "First, create an outline of your story. Then, we'll put the events in the correct order. Next, we'll look to see which events are important, and which are just small details. Finally, you'll revise your outline and write a draft."
Outline Your Story in Action
The following script incorporates this example from Ruth Culham (2003):
My Memorable Day
i. I got up
ii. I put on my black shoes.
iii. I got dressed.
iv. I went downstairs to eat breakfast.
v. I ate a bowl of Cheerios because we were all out of Wheaties.
vi. I read the sports page out of the newspaper.
vii. Nobody was hurt.
viii. A truck came barreling through the front yard and crashed into the kitchen.
ix. I talked to the police and filled out paperwork for them and for the insurance company.
x. I waited for a ride.
xi. I went to school.
Teacher: Read my outline. Are my events in the correct order?
Student: I think there is something wrong with the first part. Did you put on your shoes before you got dressed? Also, it says that no one gets hurt, but afterwards it says that a truck came through the kitchen! I think these are out of order.
Teacher: You are right — that sequence doesn't make sense. I'll switch the order of these events you named, and then I want you to reread the outline and double check that the headings are in the correct order. (Student nods.) Now, which of these events are important, and which seem to be less important details?
Student: I don't think it matters that your shoes are black. I also don't think it matters that you were out of Wheaties. I also don't think it matters that you waited for a ride. Is that important?
Teacher: Let's see... I'll revise my outline based on your points. Does this look better?
My Memorable Day
i. I got up and dressed.
ii. I ate Cheerios and read the newspaper
iii. A truck came barreling through the front yard and crashed into the kitchen.
iv. Nobody was hurt
v. I talked to the police and filled out paperwork for them and for the insurance company.
vi. I went to school.
Student: That looks good!
Teacher: Now, I'll write my draft, using these key points. Then, you'll get a chance to outline your story.
The day started out in the usual fashion; I got up, got dressed, and went downstairs for my usual bowl of cereal: today's choice — Cheerios. My daily routine took an unexpected turn, however, when I heard the sound of a large truck, first rumbling down our quiet residential street and then getting louder and louder as I realized it was right outside the kitchen window. The "Beth's Floral Shoppe" delivery truck slowed down a bit as it hit the curb but continued right across the front lawn. It was now heading right toward me at the kitchen at about 25 miles an hour. I barely had time to grab my shoes, jam them on and run like crazy out the front door in the opposite direction from the impending truck that was just about to crash headlong into the kitchen right where I had been sitting a few minutes before. As I ran out, I heard a thunderous CRASH and the sounds of destruction. The truck had finally stopped, embedded into the side of my kitchen. No one was hurt, thankfully, but I was pretty shaken up. After filing a police complaint, I went to school, armed with a story to tell my students for the day's writing lesson.
Hochman, J.C. in Birsh, J. (Ed.). (2011). Multisensory teaching of basic language skills (2nd ed.). Baltimore, MD: P.H. Brookes Pub.
Hochman, J. C., Wexler, N., & Lemov, D. (2017). The writing revolution: A guide to advancing thinking through writing in all subjects and grades. John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated.
Johnson, L. M. (2015). Hochman Multi-paragraph outline tutorial. Washington, DC: District of Columbia Schools. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oCX7xpnMyv8
Think about the following scenario, which takes place after a teacher has explicitly taught a student strategies for sequencing:
Teacher: "You've covered a lot of information in your paper. How do you want to sequence your events?"
Student: "I don't know."
In such a case, what might you do?
When you are planning your lessons, you should anticipate that your student will make errors throughout. Here are a series of prompts that you can use to respond to errors. Keep in mind that all students are different, and that a given student might respond better to some types of feedback than to others.
| Level of Support | Description of Scaffold | Script |
|---|---|---|
| Smallest Scaffold | Check your Resources. As you continue to use these interventions, your student should have lots of techniques in his notebook to choose from. Ask the student to refer back to the notebook. | "Look in your notebook: what techniques have you used in the past to sequence events?" |
| Medium Scaffold | Back it Up. If a student is struggling, back up your process. | "Okay, let's back up. Can you tell me what happens first in the story?" |
| Highest Scaffold | Step by Step. If the student continues to struggle, walk him through each step, proving examples along the way. | "Here is how I would figure out the order of events. First, I would retell my story. Then, I would decide which events came first. I would make sure that I wrote about those events in the beginning of the paper. " |
If your student struggles to meet your objective, there are various techniques that you might try in order to adjust the activity so as best to meet your student's needs.
| Activity | Description of Strategy | Script |
|---|---|---|
| All activities | Read Aloud! Read the student a variety of texts to get her thinking about how writers have sequenced their work. |
"Listen as I read a few ways that writers have sequenced the events in their papers." |
In order for a student to smoothly connect one thought to another, he requires interventions on using transitional words and phrases. This page includes intervention strategies that you can use to support your student's ability to effectively use transition words and phrases. As you read, consider which of these interventions best aligns with your student's strengths and needs in the whole-learner domains.
Explicit Instruction
If you are intervening to support your student's ability to use transitions in writing, you should start by explicitly teaching the skill. This sounds like:
Activity A: Transitions Chart
If your student struggles to connect his ideas, teach him transitional phrases, and then have him use a transitions chart to look for these phrases in action. Culham (2003) suggests teaching the following types of transitions:
Once students have learned the important transitional words and phrases, you can teach them to practice transitional techniques through a Transitions Chart. Follow these steps:
1. Show the student a piece of writing that has strong organization.
2. Identify the transitional words and phrases.
3. Organize the words and phrases into different categories using the transition chart.
4. Ask student to select a piece of his writing and look for places where he could add or refine transitions to strengthen the organization.
5. Give student time to revise his work.
As you read the Transitions chart below, consider the types of transitions words and phrases the student collects.
Adapted from Culham, R. (2003). 6 + 1 Traits of writing. New York, NY: Scholastic.
Transitions Chart in Action
Share a piece of writing with strong organization. Identify transitional words and phrases, and organize them in a transition chart. Then, have a student read his own work and identify places that need transitions. Teacher: Let's take what we've learned and apply it! On your desk, you have a transitions chart. Revisit the example we just read, and identify the transitional words and phrases that are used to connect ideas.
Activity B: Transitions Between Paragraphs
If your student is able to use transitions in sentences but still needs support with connecting one paragraph to the next, teach this strategy (Portalupi & Fletcher, 2001). This strategy uses a mentor text to teach a student how to employ transition sentences in order to progress from one idea to the next,
Transitions Between Paragraphs in Action
Share a mentor text with the student that uses transitional sentences. Then, ask the student to highlight the transitional sentences. Discuss how the transitional sentences connect ideas and make the text more interesting. "Let's read this article and highlight transitional sentences. Then, we'll figure out how they connect ideas and make the text more interesting."
As you read the PDF below, reflect: How does using a mentor text help contribute to a student's understanding of transitional sentences?
Transitions, Non-Fiction
Portalupi, J., & Fletcher, R. (2001).Craft Lessons: Teaching Informational Writing K-8. Portland, ME: Stenhouse Publishers.
Think about the following scenario, which takes place after a teacher has explicitly taught a student strategies for selecting a topic:
Teacher: "How can you use transition words to tell the reader when each event took place?"
Student: "I don't know..."
In such a case, what might you do?
When you are planning your lessons, you should anticipate that your student will make errors throughout. Here are a series of prompts that you can use to respond to errors. Keep in mind that all students are different, and that a given student might respond better to some types of feedback than to others.
| Level of Support | Description of Scaffold | Script |
|---|---|---|
| Smallest Scaffold | Check your Resources. As you continue to use these interventions, your student should have lots of techniques in his notebook to choose from. Ask the student to refer back to the notebook. | "Look in your notebook: how have you used transitions in your writing before?" |
| Medium Scaffold | Back it Up. If a student is struggling, back up your process. | "Okay, let's back up. Read each event to me. Then, we'll add a transition word such as First, Next, or Last to let the reader know when the event took place." |
| Highest Scaffold | Step by Step. If the student continues to struggle, walk him through each step, providing examples along the way. | "Here is how I figure out where to add transition words. I would read my story, and I'd stop when I realized that I am talking about a new event. Then, I know I need to add a transition word. Let's try that with your writing." |
If your student struggles to meet your objective, there are various techniques that you might employ in order to adjust the activity so as best to meet your student's needs.
| Activity | Description of Strategy | Script |
|---|---|---|
| Transitions Chart | Read Aloud! Read the student a variety of introductions to get his creative juices flowing | "Listen as I read a few sentences to show you how the author used transitions to connect key ideas." |