Transcription Interventions

Some struggling writers, particularly those with severe learning disabilities, will always have challenges with handwriting and written expression, despite frequent, intensive, and individualized intervention. Fortunately, today's technology can help these students with written expression. Technology and programs that aid a student's learning are called assistive technology. This page includes intervention strategies that you can use to support your students in this area. As you read, consider which of these interventions best aligns with your student's strengths and needs in the whole-learner domains.

As you read, consider the benefits and challenges of leveraging technology to support a struggling writer (Troia, 2008).

On saterday I wanet to my friends hoals and sleepover. We falled a cow sckatin we havint falled the sck yate but we falled a bunch of uthere bons. [Journal entry by a fifth-grade student with learning disabilities]

The student who wrote the preceding journal entry was excited to write in his journal and tell his teacher about the cow skeleton and other bones he had found at his friend's house (even though they hadn't found the skull yet). Unfortunately, his teacher had to ask for his help in decipher­ing his writing, and when his teacher wrote back to him in his journal, she had to help him read her response. This example, taken from a study on word-prediction software discussed later in the chapter, illustrates a rather extreme case of the problems with spelling that many students with learning disabilities (LD) face. Students with LD, in general, struggle with all aspects of writing, with both the composing processes of planning and revising and with the transcription processes of getting language onto paper... Compared with normally achieving students, they have less knowledge of the characteristics of good writing and the requirements of various text structures (Englert, Raphael, Ander­son, Gregg, & Anthony, 1989). In addition, they engage in relatively little planning and have few strategies for generating or organizing content (Graham, Harris, MacArthur, & Schwartz, 1991). Furthermore, their revising is focused primarily on mechanics and is generally ineffective (MacArthur, Graham, & Schwartz, 1991). Finally, they have difficulty with the transcription processes of spelling, handwriting, capitalization, and punctuation. Consequently, their papers have more errors and are shorter, less complete and organized, and lower in overall quality than those of their average peers (Graham et al., 1991)...

A wide range of computer applications have been developed to support writing, and many of them are especially helpful for struggling writers. Word-processing, spelling-­checking, word-prediction, and speech-recognition programs can offer support for transcription and revision. Outlining programs and concept-mapping software can offer help in planning. At the same time, tech­nology has expanded the types of writing that people create in both school and out-of-school environments to include e-mail, blogs, Internet chat, hypertext, and multimedia. These new forms of writing have not been studied extensively, but they may offer both opportunities and chal­lenges to struggling writers. Multimedia software may help struggling writers to express their ideas with less writing, and new opportunities for authentic communication online may motivate and guide writing. However, these new tools also present new requirements and skills to master.

Explicit Instruction

If you are intervening to support your student's ability to use assistive technology, you should start by explicitly instructing the student in how to use it appropriately. Below is an example of how to teach a student about using word-prediction software. As you read, think about how you could use this model to explain other types of assistive technology in your classroom.

• Explain the Skill/Concept. Define word prediction software, and explain the activity. ("Word-prediction software is a tool that you can use to predict the next word you will write. This will help you produce a greater amount of writing. "Today, we'll learn how to use a word prediction tool to help our writing." )
• Model Skill with Examples. Model how to choose the correct word. ("I want to write the sentence, 'I am going to the store with my aunt.' Watch what happens as I type: When I type, "I am going..." the next words that pop up are 'to' and 'on'. Since I want to write, I am going to the store, I'll choose the word, 'to.' Once I click on the word to, my sentence will say, I am going to. Now, I'll continue choosing the right words for my sentence. If no word pops up, I should start writing the word. That way, the computer can find words that match the letters I've begun to type." )
• Model Skill with Non-Examples. Model choosing an incorrect word . ("Watch again as I type. What if I chose 'on' instead of 'to. Now it says, I am going on, which doesn't match the sentence that I wanted to write. I have to return to the word going, and then choose the correct word that goes with my sentence, which is to.")
• Practice the Skill. Practice using the software with your student, providing feedback as necessary. ("Now you try. I'm going to show you...")

Activity A: Keyboarding
If your student struggles greatly with handwriting, or is in upper-elementary school or beyond but writes very laboriously, teach him Keyboarding. The processes involved in keyboarding are different from those involved in writing letters by hand, so keyboarding may offer students who struggle with handwriting a more efficient way to produce their writing. Keyboarding can also help a student who struggles with handwriting to build confidence in his writing skills, since the type is inherently neat and legible. Just like with handwriting, a student must be explicitly taught how to keyboard. He must be given daily practice opportunities (even five to ten minutes is effective) and feedback on his progress.

One word of caution about keyboarding: just as technology is changing the "reading brain," it's also changing the "writing brain." Research has shown that when using a word-processing program, even the most skilled writers take shortcuts at the planning phase and begin to draft immediately. For struggling writers, this can be disastrous. As your struggling writer becomes more efficient at typing, ensure that you continue to emphasize the importance of the planning phase prior to transcribing thoughts.

Keyboarding in Action
Provide student with a computer and keyboard. Allow the student practice keyboarding in lieu of handwriting. Provide explicit instruction (or use of a typing-specific program) as needed to increase the student's speed and efficiency. Provide at least one opportunity for practice each day. "Today you'll be practicing keyboard on the computer. Make sure to have your hands in the proper position as you type, which will maximize the speed and efficiency of your typing."

Activity B: Word Prediction
If your student has trouble forming letters and words, or struggles with severe spelling problems, you may consider using word-prediction software. Troia (2008) writes:

A word processor with a spelling checker is an effective tool for many struggling writers. But some students with severe spelling problems may have difficulty with traditional spelling checkers. Their spelling may be so impaired that a spelling checker cannot suggest the correct words, and they may not be able to read their own writing. Consider, for example, the journal entry at the beginning of this chapter. No spelling checker would suggest the correct spelling for hoals, skatin, or failed. Other stu­dents are reluctant to ignore spelling errors on a first draft. These stu­dents may benefit from word prediction software.

Word prediction was originally developed for individuals with physical disabilities that make typing difficult. It "predicts" what word the user intends to type based on initial letters. For example, if I have typed, "My best f," the program might offer a list of predictions includ­ing "food," "friend," and "family." If I continue by adding r to the f, the program would update the list, eliminating words that do not start with fr and adding new words. When the intended word appears in the list, I can insert the word in the text by typing the number of the word or click­ing on it. Most word prediction systems also provide speech synthesis to help students read the list of words. Depending on the sophistication of the program, predictions will be based on spelling alone or in combina­tion with syntax and words or phrases recently used by the writer.

Word Prediction in Action
Direct student to type his writing. Tell him that as he writes, other words will appear on the screen. These words are the computer's best prediction of what the student will write next. Tell the student to choose the words from the predicted list as he goes. If the word does not pop up, tell the student to keep typing, because the computer may not have enough information yet to predict the next word. "As you type your story, you'll see words pop up. Click on the word you want as you write. The computer will keep generating words for you, which will help you write more efficiently."

Activity C: Speech Recognition
Another strategy to use if your student has trouble forming letters, has illegible handwriting, or is unable to keyboard, is speech-recognition software, which allows a student to dictate his work directly to a computer. Troia writes:

Dictation has a long history as a means of composing for busy profes­sionals and some authors. Winston Churchill, one of the more prolific writers of the first half of the 20th century, composed nearly all his work by dictating to secretaries (Manchester, 1988). Speech recognition software makes it possible to dictate directly to the computer without the assistance of another person. Early systems required the user to dictate a word at a time, called "discrete speech recognition." Current systems permit continuous dictation, although the user must dictate punctuation, and they require only a few minutes of training the system to adjust to an individual's voice.

Potentially, speech recognition offers a solution for students who struggle with handwriting and spelling. For students with learning dis­abilities and other poor writers, dictated compositions are both sub­stantially longer and qualitatively superior to compositions written via handwriting or word processing (Graham, 1990; MacArthur & Gra­ham, 1987; Reece & Cummings, 1996). In comparison with dictating to a tape recorder for later transcription, speech recognition has the addi­tional advantage that the user can see and reread the emerging text. In a series of studies comparing handwriting, dictation to a tape recorder, and dictation to a typist working on a word processor so that the author could see the screen, Reece and Cummings (1996) demonstrated that seeing the screen improved the writing of average students. They also found that dictation in both forms improved the writing of struggling writers.

However, current speech recognition systems, despite dramatic improvements in the past decade, still have serious limitations. First, accuracy of speech recognition is limited. Although the systems never misspell words, they do not always recognize dictated words correctly. Reviews of software generally report accuracy for adults of 95% or bet­ter (e.g., Metz, 2006). A study with 10th-grade students (MacArthur & Cavalier, 2004) reported average accuracy of 87% after 2 hours of train­ing and practice. Second, users must articulate carefully, must dictate punctuation and formatting, and must avoid extraneous vocalizations. Third, users must learn to recognize and correct new types of mistakes. Instead of the familiar spelling mistakes, users must find incorrect words. The popular speech recognition programs will support editing by reading back the user's actual dictation while highlighting the words...

...speech recognition raises many practical issues. It is difficult to use speech recognition in a school environment because the software requires a reasonably quiet environment for accurate rec­ognition. Also, it makes composing a more public effort, which may be embarrassing, especially for struggling writers. It is probably most suitable for use in resource rooms or at home. In addition, students must make a commitment to learning to use the software effectively. No research results have been reported on students who have used the software long term. College students with LD, who are required to produce substantial amounts of written work, may benefit most from its use.

Speech Recognition in Action
Teacher explains that student should speak into the computer and read (or narrate) what he wants the computer to write. Tell the student that if the computer makes an error, he should delete the word (or sentence) and restate what he wants the computer to write."Read (or tell) your story to the computer. Remember to say it slowly so that the computer has time to process what you are saying."

Troia, G.A. (2008). Instruction and Assessment for Struggling Writers: Evidence-Based Practices. The Guilford Press: New York, NY.

Think about the following scenario, which takes place after a teacher has explicitly taught a student strategies for using assistive technology:

Teacher: "What's wrong, Jose?"
Student, using word-prediction software: "I keep trying to type and the computer keeps popping up these words. I don't try to click them, but then they go into my writing, and now it doesn't make sense!"

In such a case, what might you do?

When you are planning your lessons, you should anticipate that your student will make errors throughout. Here are a series of prompts that you can use to respond to errors. Keep in mind that all students are different, and that a given student might respond better to some types of feedback than to others.

If your student struggles to meet your objective, there are various techniques that you might employ in order to adjust the activity so as best to meet your student's needs.